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哈佛大学

哈佛大学

Harvard university
Massachusetts HallCambridge, MA 02138
中等城市 旅游城市 历史名城 安全 英语 师资力量雄厚
  • 建校时间:1636 年
  • 学校类型:私立
  • 学生总数:10803
  • 毕业率:71.6%
  • 男女比例:53:47
  • 就业率:89.9%
  • 优势专业:商学 法学 教育学 生物医学
院校简介 本科申请 研究生申请 专业设置 院校排名 院校问答
概况
哈佛大学院校介绍

  院校概况

  哈佛大学(Harvard University),简称哈佛,坐落于美国马萨诸塞州剑桥市,是一所享誉世界的私立研究型大学,是著名的常春藤盟校成员。这里走出了8位美利坚合众国总统,上百位诺贝尔获得者曾在此工作、学习,其在文学、医学、法学、商学等多个领域拥有崇高的学术地位及广泛的影响力,被公认为是当今世界最顶尖的高等教育机构之一。

  哈佛同时也是美国本土历史最悠久的高等学府,其诞生于1636年,最早由马萨诸塞州殖民地立法机关创建,初名新市民学院,是为了纪念在成立初期给予学院慷慨支持的约翰・哈佛牧师。学校于1639年3月更名为哈佛学院。1780年,哈佛学院正式改称哈佛大学。截止2014年,学校有本科生6700余人,硕士及博士研究生14500余人。

  哈佛大学是全美第一所大学,同时是常春藤盟校成员之一。美国独立战争以来大量的革命先驱都出自于哈佛的门下。哈佛大学被誉为美国政府的思想库。这里先后诞生了八位美国总统,40位诺贝尔奖得主和30位普利策奖得主。其商学院案例教学盛名远播。这里也培养了缔造了微软、IBM、Facebook等一个个商业奇迹的人。

  哈佛大学的所有本科专业教育水平都是世界顶级的。

  哈佛大学教学资源之丰富令人咋舌。学校拥有70个独立图书馆,3000英亩森林研究站,12座教学用博物馆,占地265英亩的植物园,24座科学研究专用校舍,多个剧院和舞台,41支体育团队,450个学生社团……除此之外,你还能够跨界注册哈佛研究生院与职业学院,甚至邻居麻省理工的课程!

  哈佛大学奖学金政策一视同仁,而且你的申奖状态不影响你的录取几率

  被哈佛录取的学生SAT Math部分平均成绩在710到790之间;Verbal部分平均得分在700-800之间;平均SAT总分(Combined)为2225,比全美其它各大学的录取平均SAT成绩高出了41.3%。每年约有70%的学生能够获得奖学金,且申请奖学金不会影响申请者被录取的几率。

  综合评价

  支持雅思成绩申请;排名第一; 私立综合性大学;提供奖学金;东北部,尽享都市便利;

  学术信息

  选择该校的理由

  1.哈佛大学(Harvard University),美国大学教育的旗舰,常青藤联盟的代表。

  2.哈佛大学商学院是这个星球上最好的商学院,没有其他。

  3.哈佛大学的所有本科学科教育水平都是世界顶级的。

  4.哈佛大学图书馆是世界上最大的大学图书馆。

  强势专业

  哈佛大学有12个学院, 提供46种本科专业,134种研究生专业,其中:

  商学院――全美排名第一;

  法学院――全美排名第三;

  教育学院――全美排名第二;

  商学院――全美排名第一;

  生物医学领域专业――全美排名前五;

  著名校友

  John Adams - American President

  Ralph Waldo Emerson - Writer

  Al Gore - American Vice President

  John F. Kennedy - American President

  Mackenzie King - Canadian Prime Minister

  Sara Lazarus - Jazz vocalist

  Yo Yo Ma - Cellist

  Suzanne Malveaux - CNN Correspondent

  Natalie Portman - Actress

  Henry David Thoreau - Journalist, Philosopher and Writer

师生情况

师生比:1:7国际学生比例:12.00本科生数:7029 男女比:53:47在校学生数:10803研究生数:14937

学术信息

  选择该校的理由

  1.哈佛大学(Harvard University),美国大学教育的旗舰,常青藤联盟的代表。

  2.哈佛大学商学院是这个星球上最好的商学院,没有其他。

  3.哈佛大学的所有本科学科教育水平都是世界顶级的。

  4.哈佛大学图书馆是世界上最大的大学图书馆。

  强势专业

  哈佛大学有12个学院, 提供46种本科专业,134种研究生专业,其中:

  商学院――全美排名第一;

  法学院――全美排名第三;

  教育学院――全美排名第二;

  商学院――全美排名第一;

  生物医学领域专业――全美排名前五;

地理位置

斯坦福大学位于美国加州旧金山湾区南部的帕拉阿图市,临近世界著名高科技园区硅谷,苹果、谷歌和惠普等企业的总部就在学校不远处。

院系设置

为学生们提供学士学位、硕士学位以及博士学位,专业设置广泛,开设的主要专业包括:美洲研究、人类学、亚洲语言、生物科学、化学、古典文学、交流学、比较文学、戏剧、地球科学、亚洲研究、工程、经济学、英语、历史、国际关系、数学、音乐、哲学、心理学、宗教研究、象征系统学、计算机科学、化学工程、土木工程、电气工程、机械工程学、工程物理学、环境工程、生物工程、计算机系统工程 、产品设计、城市研究、建筑设计、数学及计算机科学、航空航天、能源资源工程、管理学与工程、材料科学与工程、生物力学工程、地质工程学与水文学等等

学校住宿

所有的斯坦福一年级生均需留校住宿,他们亦获得未来四年的宿位保证。

当中有89%的本科生获分配校园内的宿位。

根据斯坦福房屋分配办公室提供的资料,校方为这些住宿学生提供了80种的住宿形式,包括宿舍、合作社、联排式住宅、兄弟和姊妹会等。

本科申请
申请数据
  • 本科学生数:7029
  • 本科录取率:6%
  • 本科申请人数:10,114
  • 申请截止时间:3月1日;EA:11月15日
留学费用
  • 总花费:$59,594
  • 申请费:$90
  • 学费:$42,162
  • 住宿费:$14,264
  • 生活费:$4,260
研究生申请
申请数据
  • 研究生学生数:14937
  • 研究生录取率:6%
  • 研究生申请人数:38,828
  • 申请截止时间:9月9日-4月12日
留学费用
  • 总花费:$102,936-178,465
  • 申请费:$125-275
  • 学费:$54,315-129,700
  • 住宿费:$20,955
  • 生活费:$26,220
热门专业申请条件
专业名称 学位类型 学制 开学时间 费用 申请要求 申请材料
化学生物学-硕士MA MA in Chemical Biology 硕士 9月 18152美元/学年 托福:笔考600 雅思:
1、申请表 2、学历证明及成绩单 3、托福成绩单 4、GRE成绩单 5、推荐信 6、个人简历 7、个人自述
南亚研究-硕士MA MA in South Asian Studies 硕士 秋季 46384美元 托福: 雅思:
Transcript: Transcripts uploaded to the application Personal Statement: The statement of purpose is very important to programs when deciding whether to admit a candidate. Your statement should be focused, informative, and convey your research interests and qualifications. You should provide a vivid picture of your intellectual profile: how you formulate research topics, how you pursue them, and how you articulate any interesting findings. As you convey this information, it is important to emphasize how these experiences have influenced both your decision to undertake graduate study and your goals within a graduate program. Recommendation Letter: Before applying, confirm that three faculty members or others qualified to evaluate your potential for graduate study have agreed to submit letters of recommendation on your behalf. At least one letter should be from a faculty member at the school where you earned your most recent degree, unless you have been out of school for more than five years. You must provide the e-mail addresses of three recommenders when you apply. GSAS requires your recommenders to submit their letters via an online recommendation system. By law, enrolled students have the right to view their letters of recommendation, unless they indicate otherwise at the time of application. Please note on your application whether you are waiving your right to see these letters. We regret that we are unable to accept letters submitted through a recommendation dossier service. Writing Sample: A writing sample is required.
城市规划-硕士 Master of Urban Planning 硕士 2年 秋季 50120美元 托福:总分:92,听力:23,阅读:23,口语:92,写作:92 雅思:
Transcript: Transcripts from all colleges and universities from which you have received credit (please note that official transcripts must be scanned into the online application; official transcripts sent to the GSD are not accepted at the time of application). Curriculum Vitae: Resume and Essay. Recommendation Letter: Letters of Recommendation (three) must be submitted electronically through the online application (instructions on how to do this are included in the application, as well as in the FAQs section). Portfolio: Applicants to degree programs other than the Master in Urban Planning program must submit a portfolio that includes their most important and representative visual arts, design, research, and/or professional work. A portfolio for the Master in Urban Planning degree program is optional. Master in Design Studies and Doctor of Design portfolios should consist of scholarly, academic and/or professional work and may or may not include visual material, at the discretion of the applicant, and as related to the proposed research area.The design portfolio for Master in Design Engineering applicants should provide three to five examples of the candidate’s work, design and/or research, which are most relevant to the MDE program. Examples may be professional or academic and may encompass designed, researched, and/or actualized work. Projects may include, but are not limited to, buildings, mechanical systems, electronic systems, organizational systems, and recommendations regarding processes. Demonstration of technical literacy and innovation is desirable. Projects should be submitted in PDF format and include a description of the project as well as supporting documentation, which may include images or a video (videos must be uploaded separately from the PDF). Applicants may include a list of additional relevant projects.
工商管理-硕士MBA MBA 硕士 秋季 托福: 雅思:
Transcript: When providing uploaded transcripts for the application, all course names must be translated into English before submission. An unofficial translation is acceptable in your initial written application. However, if admitted to Harvard Business School, you will be required to provide an official original language paper transcript sent directly from each college or university attended to World Education Services (WES), a third-party verification agency, along with an official word-for-word English translation of that transcript. The School reserves the right to withdraw any offer of admission if there is a discrepancy between the uploaded unofficial translation and the official original language transcript and/or the official translation. Curriculum Vitae: A current business resume uploaded through our online application system. This can be your standard business resume or CV. You do not need to have it in any special format. You can use whatever you would use to conduct a job search. Personal Statement: There is one question for the Class of 2019: As we review your application, what more would you like us to know as we consider your candidacy for the Harvard Business School MBA program? There is no word limit for this question. We think you know what guidance we're going to give here. Don't overthink, overcraft and overwrite. Just answer the question in clear language that those of us who don't know your world can understand. Joint program applicants for the Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Harvard Law School, and Harvard Kennedy School must provide an additional essay: How do you expect the joint degree experience to benefit you on both a professional and a personal level? (400 words) Recommendation Letter: You will need to have two recommendations submitted online by the application deadlines. Use your best judgment on who you decide to ask - there is no set formula for who should be your recommenders. We know it is not always possible to have a direct supervisor write your recommendation – we would not want you to jeopardize your current position for the application process. Look at the questions we are asking recommenders to complete. Find people who know you well enough to answer them. This can be a former supervisor, a colleague, someone you collaborate on an activity outside of work. How well a person knows you should take priority over level of seniority or HBS alumni status.
工程科学:电气工程-硕士MS MS in Engineering Sciences: Electrical Engineering 硕士 秋季 46384美元 托福:总分:80,口语:80,写作:80 雅思:
Transcript: Applicants are required to upload transcript copies from each college/university they attended into our online application system: official hard copy/paper transcripts are not required at the time of application. Please note that transcripts from international institutions—records of all courses, seminars, and examinations, including grades, scores, grading scales, and confirmation of degree conferral—must be in English. If records are not available in English, original records must be accompanied by certified English translations. All translations must be literal and complete versions of the original records. Curriculum Vitae: Resume or CV is required Personal Statement: Statement of Purpose is required Recommendation Letter: Three letters of recommendation.
建筑学-硕士 II Master of Architecture II 硕士 2年 秋季 50120美元 托福:总分:92,听力:23,阅读:23,口语:92,写作:92 雅思:
Transcript: Transcripts from all colleges and universities from which you have received credit (please note that official transcripts must be scanned into the online application; official transcripts sent to the GSD are not accepted at the time of application). Curriculum Vitae: Resume and Essay. Recommendation Letter: Letters of Recommendation (three) must be submitted electronically through the online application (instructions on how to do this are included in the application, as well as in the FAQs section). Portfolio: Applicants to degree programs other than the Master in Urban Planning program must submit a portfolio that includes their most important and representative visual arts, design, research, and/or professional work. A portfolio for the Master in Urban Planning degree program is optional. Master in Design Studies and Doctor of Design portfolios should consist of scholarly, academic and/or professional work and may or may not include visual material, at the discretion of the applicant, and as related to the proposed research area.The design portfolio for Master in Design Engineering applicants should provide three to five examples of the candidate’s work, design and/or research, which are most relevant to the MDE program. Examples may be professional or academic and may encompass designed, researched, and/or actualized work. Projects may include, but are not limited to, buildings, mechanical systems, electronic systems, organizational systems, and recommendations regarding processes. Demonstration of technical literacy and innovation is desirable. Projects should be submitted in PDF format and include a description of the project as well as supporting documentation, which may include images or a video (videos must be uploaded separately from the PDF). Applicants may include a list of additional relevant projects.
景观建筑-硕士 I AP Master of Landscape Architecture I AP 硕士 2年 秋季 50120美元 托福:总分:92,听力:23,阅读:23,口语:92,写作:92 雅思:
Transcript: Transcripts from all colleges and universities from which you have received credit (please note that official transcripts must be scanned into the online application; official transcripts sent to the GSD are not accepted at the time of application). Curriculum Vitae: Resume and Essay. Recommendation Letter: Letters of Recommendation (three) must be submitted electronically through the online application (instructions on how to do this are included in the application, as well as in the FAQs section). Portfolio: Applicants to degree programs other than the Master in Urban Planning program must submit a portfolio that includes their most important and representative visual arts, design, research, and/or professional work. A portfolio for the Master in Urban Planning degree program is optional. Master in Design Studies and Doctor of Design portfolios should consist of scholarly, academic and/or professional work and may or may not include visual material, at the discretion of the applicant, and as related to the proposed research area.The design portfolio for Master in Design Engineering applicants should provide three to five examples of the candidate’s work, design and/or research, which are most relevant to the MDE program. Examples may be professional or academic and may encompass designed, researched, and/or actualized work. Projects may include, but are not limited to, buildings, mechanical systems, electronic systems, organizational systems, and recommendations regarding processes. Demonstration of technical literacy and innovation is desirable. Projects should be submitted in PDF format and include a description of the project as well as supporting documentation, which may include images or a video (videos must be uploaded separately from the PDF). Applicants may include a list of additional relevant projects.
法律硕士LLM LLM (Master of Laws) 硕士 秋季 63800美元 托福:总分:100,听力:25,阅读:25,口语:100,写作:100 雅思:
Transcript: Transcript(s) (including diplomas for all degrees that have been received) Curriculum Vitae: Resume or CV is required Personal Statement: Personal statement, parts (A) and (B) Recommendation Letter: Recommendations (at least two)
设计研究-房地产与建筑环境-硕士 Master of Design Studies - Real Estate and the Built Environment 硕士 秋季 50120美元 托福:总分:92,听力:23,阅读:23,口语:92,写作:92 雅思:
Transcript: Transcripts from all colleges and universities from which you have received credit (please note that official transcripts must be scanned into the online application; official transcripts sent to the GSD are not accepted at the time of application). Curriculum Vitae: Resume and Essay. Recommendation Letter: Letters of Recommendation (three) must be submitted electronically through the online application (instructions on how to do this are included in the application, as well as in the FAQs section). Portfolio: Applicants to degree programs other than the Master in Urban Planning program must submit a portfolio that includes their most important and representative visual arts, design, research, and/or professional work. A portfolio for the Master in Urban Planning degree program is optional. Master in Design Studies and Doctor of Design portfolios should consist of scholarly, academic and/or professional work and may or may not include visual material, at the discretion of the applicant, and as related to the proposed research area.The design portfolio for Master in Design Engineering applicants should provide three to five examples of the candidate’s work, design and/or research, which are most relevant to the MDE program. Examples may be professional or academic and may encompass designed, researched, and/or actualized work. Projects may include, but are not limited to, buildings, mechanical systems, electronic systems, organizational systems, and recommendations regarding processes. Demonstration of technical literacy and innovation is desirable. Projects should be submitted in PDF format and include a description of the project as well as supporting documentation, which may include images or a video (videos must be uploaded separately from the PDF). Applicants may include a list of additional relevant projects.
设计研究-能源与环境-硕士 Master of Design Studies - Energy and Environments 硕士 秋季 50120美元 托福:总分:92,听力:23,阅读:23,口语:92,写作:92 雅思:
Transcript: Transcripts from all colleges and universities from which you have received credit (please note that official transcripts must be scanned into the online application; official transcripts sent to the GSD are not accepted at the time of application). Curriculum Vitae: Resume and Essay. Recommendation Letter: Letters of Recommendation (three) must be submitted electronically through the online application (instructions on how to do this are included in the application, as well as in the FAQs section). Portfolio: Applicants to degree programs other than the Master in Urban Planning program must submit a portfolio that includes their most important and representative visual arts, design, research, and/or professional work. A portfolio for the Master in Urban Planning degree program is optional. Master in Design Studies and Doctor of Design portfolios should consist of scholarly, academic and/or professional work and may or may not include visual material, at the discretion of the applicant, and as related to the proposed research area.The design portfolio for Master in Design Engineering applicants should provide three to five examples of the candidate’s work, design and/or research, which are most relevant to the MDE program. Examples may be professional or academic and may encompass designed, researched, and/or actualized work. Projects may include, but are not limited to, buildings, mechanical systems, electronic systems, organizational systems, and recommendations regarding processes. Demonstration of technical literacy and innovation is desirable. Projects should be submitted in PDF format and include a description of the project as well as supporting documentation, which may include images or a video (videos must be uploaded separately from the PDF). Applicants may include a list of additional relevant projects.
世界排名
QS USNEWS 上海交大 THE
  • Q:我今年高三,想申请美国的哈佛大学,但是我连续考了三次雅思,请问这会不会对我申请美国大学有不好影响?
  • A:成绩的话一般是取最高的一次。但是之间的range也不能太大,否则老美会认为你有作弊的嫌疑,这个嫌疑得不到确认,会对录取很有害。
  • Q:我想去哈佛大学商学院上学,请问都有哪些要求,费用要多少?
  • A:哈佛的商学院是全世界最好的商学院之一,对学生的要求非常高。基本上要求你的GPA在3.5以上,TOEFL一百分以上,SAT在2000以上。
  • Q:哈佛大学近40年都做出了什么改变世界的事情?
  • A:英国硕士由于学制短,学费大部分家庭都可以承受,获得了国内很多学生的青睐,但是申请英国硕士不得不说也不是一件简单的事情呢楼主目前是大三,大三的话,下面有几个方面要提上行程了,毕竟大四上学期就要开始准备申请英国学校啦。第一:先初步了解一下自己想要读哪个专业,读哪所学校,英国硕士申请的话最多可以申请5个,所以题主可以有非常充分的选择。第二:GPA,在计算出自己的GPA后,与第一步你想要去的目标学校给出的要求作对比,看看是否存在差距,如果存在,可以选择重修刷分,或者用大三的成绩拉高GPA。另外还要积极参与学校的各种学科竞赛和课外活动,参与一些与申请专业专业相关的科研项目,努力发一篇高质量的论文也是锦上添花。在申请学校的时候可以当做一个布灵布灵的闪光点。第三:雅思,这时候你就要开始准备出国留学的人嘴中谈之色变的雅思啦。首先呢,加强英语听力以及口语的练习。雅思考试中对于国人来讲,这两点算是比较弱的两点,所以这两方面一定要加重练习。可以多看一些英剧美剧什么的,至于看什么合适,你随便在网上一搜就会有很多啦。还有一点就是你可以在某宝上买那种私人教练的课程,听说帮助也很大哈。第四:实时了解心仪院校专业的申请动态要求,尽可能的达到该要求。然后就可以进入申请阶段:1.要根据最终的相互匹配选定学校和专业;2.联系学校出具成绩单加盖公章、跟老师沟通拿到推荐信;3.制作文书(推荐信、简历、PS)、修改所有材料确认无误后递交。4.申请完成后,如果有些院校有面试的话,还需要准备相关学校的面试。5.最后拿到offer,就可以去准备出国的相关事宜了。6.飞到英国,度过你人生中值得回味的一年啦。
  • Q:武汉大学好还是哈佛大学好?
  • A:勇士杀掉了恶龙,自己却长出獠牙。克伦威尔推翻并处决了查理一世,自己却成为近似国王的“护国公”,武力驱逐议会中的反对者,并且传位给儿子。时至今日,人们对克伦威尔的评价也褒贬不一。有人说他创立了没有国王的共和国,粉推翻了君主制,有人说他用宗教情绪大肆屠杀异己,达成野心。不过有一点,他优秀的军事指挥能力无可置疑,也正是依靠强力军队,他得以击败英格兰保皇派、爱尔兰、以及苏格兰的保守力量。(克伦威尔画像和死亡面具,右侧也就是他的真实长相)含着银汤勺出生:克伦威尔出生于英格兰剑桥郡一个富裕士绅家庭,他的家族利用宗教改革机会贩酒发财,埋下了深厚人际脉络。因此克伦威尔也受到良好教育,还进入剑桥大学学习。不过当父亲去世后,他辍学离校,过起了自由自在的自耕农生活。通过养鸡养羊,出售鸡蛋和羊毛养活自己不是问题,但无法让他和政治沾上边。但是很快的,家族几位亲戚去世带来的遗产馈赠让他再次富有,成为体面人。(博物馆中,克伦威尔的配剑)衣食无忧的生活让克伦威尔对宗教产生浓厚兴趣,当时流行的宗教改革也影响了这位年轻人,略显激进的思想让他成为一名热情清教徒(新教,现代美国主要教派),和传统的天主教生活方式格格不入。(克伦威尔故居,现在内部已被改建成博物馆)由于家族过去和埃塞克斯豪门留下种种联系,29岁的克伦威尔成为当地议会会员,踏入了英格兰政治圈。初期的经历当然是默默无闻,后来几年里他慢慢积累了从政经验,也有所作为,顺理成章当上国会议员。在对抗国王和天主教会势力时,克伦威尔积极运作,发挥出不小作用。变乱带来机遇:英国国王查理一世和议会之间由于权力争夺一直存在极深矛盾,这直接导致1642年英国内战爆发。相对于查理一世拥有专业军队不同,议会非常缺乏靠谱的将领和士兵。众人焦头烂额之时,克伦威尔崭露头角的机会来了,他过去在剑桥郡曾做过县里的民兵,看起来毫不起眼的经历背后,是他长期被埋没的军事才能。(高仿真模型,克伦威尔戎装像)很快,克伦威尔利用自己的名声和议会职位,在剑桥当地招募起一支骑兵部队,全部只采用新教徒,与国王教会为敌。由于没能赶上议会和国王的前期战斗,他便不断扩充部队,竟拉起了一个完整的团。一年后,克伦威尔和他的骑兵第一次获得了战斗经验。林肯郡的战场上,初次临阵的克伦威尔骑兵勇敢正面对抗保皇党骑兵,而他自己则率部从敌军背后试试突袭,把保皇党逼进沼泽地里,快速斩杀300多人。首战获胜大大强化了克伦威尔的信心,他知道部下们虽然勇气可嘉但经验仍显不足,便着手用自己的方式改进领导和训练。克伦威尔本人从未上过军校,没有接受过正规的军事技战术训练,不过他似乎天赋异禀,用直觉和推断来大胆改进传统战法。他开始一反传统采用密集骑兵编队,相邻骑兵的膝盖几乎都会碰到。他一般把这种密集编组分为三队向前推进,依靠快速冲击而不是火力打击。并且他不让骑兵们优先追逐敌人,而要保持阵型紧密团结,以争取抓住机会打击敌人主力。人类历史上诸多强者往往如此,他们没有响亮的资历和背景,却能从过往经验和敏锐观察中总结关键,从而开创独树一帜之路。(克伦威尔和他的新式骑兵)战争天才与政治明星:接下来多次战斗,克伦威尔和他的新式军队发挥出强大战斗力。马斯顿摩尔战役时,克伦威尔马队从侧翼迅速击败保皇党骑兵,打破平衡后奠定了胜局。他自己因为勇猛冲锋被对方手枪击中脖子,幸而伤势不重。而后议会建立起“新模范军”,由克伦威尔任骑兵指挥官。1645年,议会和国王于纳斯比战役决战。已升任中将的克伦威尔刚出现在战场上,就让保皇党感到畏惧。接下来战斗证明,即便是英格兰皇家骑兵也挡住这位冉冉升起的战争天才。在皇家骑兵抢先冲锋面前,议会军骑兵再次摧枯拉朽,干净利落迎面消灭了他们。(冒着保皇党骑兵火枪射击,克伦威尔带队突击)整只议会军里,“老铁骑军”的名号嘹亮远扬,这就是士兵们对克伦威尔的尊敬称呼了。军事胜利带来政治地位,克伦威尔很快成为议会的代表人物,不断起草改革文件和宪法方案。接连胜利之下,查理一世只能承认失败,于1646年向议会投降。第一次英国内战结束。数年后,不甘心失败的查理一世再次起兵,联络苏格兰反对议会。但在克伦威尔无可争议的军事优势面前,失败只是时间问题。1649年,克伦威尔和其他议会领袖一同签署处死查理一世的审判书。该文件上面写着:“查理·斯图亚特作为暴君、叛徒、杀人犯及国家的敌人,应该被斩首。”因为影响巨大,没人愿意先签字,而克伦威尔上前抓起一支笔,潦草写下自己的名字,然后递给第二位,让人们不禁汗颜。(处决查理一世国王的签字审判书原件)于是,英格兰从王国变成了共和国,被叫做“英格兰联邦”,克伦威尔掌握着军队的实际控制权。对于议会内部要求扩大选举权,要求法律面前人人平等,以及宗教宽容的论调,克伦威尔十分反感,他认为投票权只能给土地所有者(地主),为此不得不和其他领导人不断辩论。(1649年,正走向巅峰的克伦威尔)长出獠牙的英雄:为了镇压各地叛乱和分裂,克伦威尔率军侵入爱尔兰。其实爱尔兰天主教徒并不十分支持保皇党,但他们因为天主教信仰问题被克伦威尔视为重大威胁。这一次,依然没人能挡住克伦威尔,他的部队连接攻城拔寨。不过议会军的表现就相当令人吃惊了。他们不仅把爱尔兰军队当作敌人,连平民也受到波及。1649年秋,克伦威尔部队攻下德罗赫达后,杀掉了2700名投降的保皇党士兵和镇上所有携带武器之人,不少平民囚犯以及天主教神父都遇害了。维克斯福德镇是下一个受害地区,克伦威尔倒是想谈判一下,可他的士兵冲进镇里,杀掉了2000名爱尔兰士兵和多达1500名平民,还放火烧毁了大部分建筑物。(西方绘画,克伦威尔在德洛赫达烧杀抢掠)如此层出不穷的暴行让简单的占领几乎成为种族灭绝,也让爱尔兰人对克伦威尔记恨至深,直到现代,他们还努力要求将克伦威尔的肖像画从公众设施里搬走。北方倔强的苏格兰任因为继续支持查理一世的儿子也遭到攻击。克伦威尔率大军入侵后原本进展并不顺利,他们缺乏物资也流行疾病。但在邓巴战役中,克伦威尔抓住了和苏格兰军主力交战的机会,一举击溃对手,歼灭4000多人,还抓获超过10000俘虏。导致苏格兰首都爱丁堡陷落,一批妇女儿童也被克伦威尔部下杀害。(克伦威尔在邓巴之战,苏格兰军队惨败)清除各路保皇势力后,议会内部共同的敌人消失了,取而代之是激烈的内部争夺。1653年,克伦威尔带着40名火枪手强行解散了议会,当时他说:“你们不是议会,我说你们不是就不是,我会结束你们的会议。”他还抢过象征权力的礼仪小钉锤,并要求将这“小玩意儿”带走。另外组建起小议会以后,大部分成员几乎完全听命于他,但因为小部分激进议员不断提议继续改革,给予普通民众同等政治权力。结果小议会也被迫解散。1653年12月16日,克伦威尔被很多名流热烈推戴为“护国公”,刚刚建立起的共和制还没展开羽翼便无声夭折,英格兰进入一种特殊时期——护国公政体。(克伦威尔带兵解散议会)余波与思考:历史总是矛盾又奇妙的。软弱的议会共和敌不过国王的拳头,强硬的克伦威尔拯救了议会却也抛弃了共和,他的个人威权导致英国国富民强,但又昙花一现,致使君主制卷土重来。看到这里,大家或许会想到许多熟悉的名人,比如罗伯斯庇尔、袁世凯。他们的结局也差异不大。克伦威尔掌权后的对外扩张的强力国策颇有建树,因尿路感染引起败血症去世后(59岁),他的儿子却坐不稳父亲留给他的“护国公”之位,英格兰几经混乱,王权复辟又被推翻,最终妥协建立起君主立宪制。而克伦威尔的遗体被挖出,再次处以绞刑。他的头颅在威斯敏斯特大厅外的一根柱子上插了长达25年之久,任凭风吹雨打。后来,这个头颅更成为商品,在形形色色的买家手里经过。(克伦威尔头颅被火化之前留下的影像)随着时光变迁,克伦威尔的名字成为战舰和坦克的代表,他的雕像也树立在曼切斯特大教堂外。那颗流浪的头颅终于在1960年被埋入剑桥西德尼苏塞克斯学院的前厅,某块地板之下,抛却野心荣耀宠辱笑骂之后,一切归于平静。(谢谢观赏,图片来自网络,欢迎关注)参考文献:Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658)ENGLISH CIVIL WARSGenocide in the Age of the Nation-State , IBTauris: London
  • Q:哈佛大学有哪些不可思议的传统?
  • A:伊朗是一个复杂的多面体,不要被西方误导,认为这里一文不值,其实伊朗有很多不错的面向,当然也有不少让人无语的地方。木叔说几个伊朗的冷知识,可能很多人不清楚。1)虽然伊朗强烈反对以色列,但该国有几千犹太人。很多人以为犹太人在伊朗就类似纳粹德国吧!其实完全不是。伊朗历史上就是除了以色列之外,中东犹太人最大的聚居地。但是1979年伊朗革命之后,很多犹太人出于安全担心离开了,目前只有不到一万人,他们难离故土,伊朗对他们保护也不错,德黑兰就有好几座犹太会堂,给他们用来祈祷。伊朗议会还专门有一个席位给犹太人,让他们行使民主权利。不过在反对以色列是国策的背景下,犹太人被很多伊朗人歧视也是可以想见的。但伊朗政府能给予保护,也说明这个国家在很多问题上比较理性。2)伊朗人的反抗精神不错。虽然伊朗1979年以来的政教合一制度让该国成为一个神权统治的国家,但是伊朗不少人为了争取权益,其实要做的更多。海外有几百万伊朗流亡人士,而伊朗一共也只有8000万人,可以说这个伊朗海外人士的数字还是相对可观的。从这个数字就可能看出伊朗人对自由权益的追逐。另外伊朗国内爆发了很多次年轻人对当局束缚做法和经济政策不满的抗议。去年8月的规模比较庞大,很多人为了自己权益都能站出来表达立场。这和沙特人相比,要更加积极更加主动。能看出伊朗人在这点上认识很清楚。3)伊朗的民主在中东算是比较开明。正如木叔以上所言,老百姓敢于对违反自己利益的行为发生,这其实就说明伊朗社会民主氛围还是不错的。举个例子。前总统内贾德前不久给最高宗教领袖发公开信,指责鲁哈尼总统和议长拉里贾尼等陷害他。这是公开的,可见对政府批评的容忍度也相对较高。而且鲁哈尼在议会做质询的时候,议员们可以直接对他抨击,甚至投下了不信任票。这在很多西方国家也不过如此吧!还有一位部长被议会弹劾下台了。但伊朗的问题也不少,就是政教合一,导致政教不分,甚至革命卫队能控制国家30%左右的经济规模,显然问题也很大。你如何看待伊朗?欢迎多交流!多评论!
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